Chapter 4: Soul as viewed by Greek Philosophers
In the previous chapters, a few characteristics of soul such as rebirth, mobility, and power to penetrate through solid particles such as walls, fortresses, woods, bodies etc. with ease had been dealt with to some extent.
The souls had been differently described by Thales as water and magnet, Anaximander as Boundless Stuff and Anaximens as Air who are ancient Greek philosophers belonging to Milesian School. This school is considered as first ancient Greek philosophic institute and they are called ‘Presocratics’ indicating that they came before Socrates.
Before plunging into the various theories about soul as held by these three Greek philosophers, let us try to know the dictionary meaning of the word soul and other concepts. The Encyclopedia Britannica defines soul thus: “Soul is a spiritual substance. Soul animates the bodies of living creatures. Soul is the principle of life and activity within them.”
Old German conception of the soul is related to sea and it is ‘a living water.’ Early Germanic people believed that the soul of deceased rested at the bottom of the sea. There was a practice amongst the Germans to ritually binding or restraining the corpse of the deceased in the grave to prevent its return as a ghost.
Some ancient Greeks referred to the soul as psyche meaning human mind and anima which means breath and life.
In the New Testament, the soul is narrated as "life", as in : "For what profit is it to a man if he gains the whole world, and loses his own soul?" (Mathew 16:26).
Hence Water, Air (Breath), Life, Mind and Movement characterize soul. In fine, the word ‘soul’ makes living things alive by breath apart from its movement and thinking faculties.
Originally, the Presocratic’s philosophers, in particular, those belonging to Milesia School, had thought that the soul owed its origin to magnet, water, air or none of these, but boundless stuff. We will be taking up the messages of these three greek philosophers viz. Thales (water and magnet), Anaximander (boundless stuff) and Anaximenes (air) one by one.
Thales, Father of Greek Philosopy:
Thales was one of the Seven Sages of Greece. Many regard him as the first philosopher in the Greek tradition as well as the father of science.
Thales of Miletus, who is credited with successfully predicting a solar eclipse occurring in 585 B.C., attributed soul to magnets, as the magnets are capable of moving iron. All living things are to be able to initiate movement and hence magnets must in fact be alive or, in other words, ensouled. Here iron is body and magnetic power is soul.
Thales had not stopped with the theory of magnet to soul. He stated that the origin of all matter is water. The largest constituent of the universe is hydrogen, which makes two of the three atoms in water (H ² O). Scientists believe that liquid water is prerequisite to life, and we know with certainty that the first life forms flourished in the oceans, so water is indeed a primordial substance.
By this, Thales had stated that water which is considered primordial substance, is the basis of all things and the soul is therefore from water. Thales famous quotes is: All things are full of God. Hence, it can be inferred that soul is also godly.
According to Thales, the soul is magnet, water and godly.
Let us now try to know about Anaximander’s views about Soul.
Anaximander:
Anaximander was a pupil of Thales, founder of the Milesian School of philosophy. He succeeded him as master of the School where his work influenced Anaximenes and Pythagoras.
In philosophical treatise, one will come across two words - apeiron meaning infinite or limitless and arkhe meaning beginning or origin. These two words were first introduced by Anaximander.
The Pre-Socratics were searching for the element that constitutes all things. Each pre-Socratic philosopher gave a different answer as to the identity of this element (water for Thales, air for Anaximenes, fire for Heraclitus).
But, Anaximander understood the beginning or first principle to be an endless, unlimited primordial mass (apeiron or infinite). This primordial mass have infinite as its characteristics and is subject to neither old age nor decay. This infinite perpetually yields fresh materials from which everything we perceive is derived.
Anaximander’s principle of things is that the constituent of all substances is not water, air or fire, but they are thicker than air and fire or more subtle than water and earth. Anaximander argued that water cannot embrace all of the opposites found in nature — for example, water can only be wet, never dry — and therefore cannot be the one primary substance and this applies to air and fire as well. He postulated the apeiron or infinite as a substance that although not directly perceptible to us, it could have the characteristics of both cold and hot. Boundless substance should be infinite, originless and both cold and hot. Hence, water, air or fire could not be that substance.
His theory is: Everything has an origin or is an origin. The boundless has no origin. If it is not boundless, then it would have a limit. Moreover, it is both unborn or immortal. The aperiron or infinite is thus the quintesential premordial ground from which everything arises.
The infinite was a kind of primal chaos, a formless and limitless mass, from which solid matter forms and to which it returns.
In Anaximander’s own words: Whence things have their origin, thence also their destruction happens as is the order of things; for they execute the sentence upon one another – the condemnation of the crime – in conformity with the ordinance of time.
Anaximander maintained that all dying things are returning to the element from which they came from apeiron or infinite.
Hence, according to Anaximander, the soul is also boundless and formless mass.
Now, let us consider what Anaximenes had to say about the Soul.
Anaximenes
Anaximenes was the student of Anaximander. He is best known for his doctrine that air is the source of all things. That means that Air is the first principle. He therefore contradicted Thales who had stated that water was the source and also Anaximander who said that all things came from an unspecified boundless stuff. For Anaximenes, everything was air. The air was acted upon by natural forces, which transform other materials of the world. Air can be thought of as a kind of neutral stuff that is found everywhere, and is hence available to participate in physical processes.
The air is associated with the soul-sometimes portrayed as the breath of life and hence with life and intelligence. Anaximenes had thought of air as capable of directing its own development to some extent as soul controlled body. He ascribed to air divine attributes as well.
Anaximenes provided an interesting account of natural change: Air differs in essence in accordance with its rarity or density. When it is thinned it becomes fire, while when it is condensed it becomes wind, then cloud, when still more condensed it becomes water, then earth, then stones. Everything else comes from these. He has pronounced that as our souls, being air, hold us together, so breath and air embrace the entire universe.
Air becomes the basic element for Fire, wind, cloud, water, earth and stone. For soul also, air becomes the basic element.
Anaximenes said that infinite air was the principle, from which all things – even gods and things divine come into being, and the rest from its product. It is always in motion: for things that change does not change unless there is movement.
Movement is, therefore, a prerequisite for changes in things.
Air, which is always in motion, is the cause for the changes in the products so evolved.
For Anaximenes, all things come from air and ultimately are air. Air as the archê or the first principle is infinite, unlimited or unconditioned and therefore unoriginate, from which it follows that it is the source of the other three elements viz. fire, water and earth and the things composed of them. If it were from a source, air would be finite, being limited or conditioned by its source. Since air is infinite and perpetually in motion it can produce all things without being produced by anything. Even the gods and other divine things derive from air and ultimately are air.
Anaximenes said that the air is god and it is boundless and infinite and always in motion.
Soul is therefore air, which is boundless and infinite and is divine.
In our next article, we will know about the views held by Heraclitus and other Greek philosophers.
( To be continued.)
