Chapter 10 - Plato's Theory on Soul
Opinions and theories of Socrates and Plato are similar in respect of everything discussed by them, as all the recordings of Socrates are by Plato himself. Plato could not differentiate himself from his teacher philosopher Socrates’ thinking and expositions. Hence what is stated to be for Socrates will equally applicable to Plato and vice versa.
Plato held that every human being includes three souls like three classes of citizen within the state, each of them contributing in its own way to the successful operation of the whole person.
Three classes of citizen are Rulers, Soldiers and General Public.
1.Rulers are responsible for making decisions according to which the nation will be governed. Rulers must have the virtue of wisdom, the capacity to comprehend reality and to make impartial judgments.
2.Soldiers to defend the nations against external and internal enemies. Soldiers need the virtue of courage, the willingness to carry out their orders in the face of danger without regard for personal risk.
3.General Public to follow its leaders instead of their private interests in order to exhibit the virtue of moderation, the subordination of personal desires to a higher purpose.
Similarly, the three souls as expounded by Plato are:
1.The Rational Soul meaning mind or intellect. This is the beacon light to make every one to lead a just life, eschewing all wrongs and making the rational decisions to make human life proper in all respects. Akin to Rulers.
2.The spiritual soul meaning will or volition. Life of human is determined by the intellect which the soul adheres courageously. Akin to Soldiers.
3.The appetitive soul meaning emotion or desire. By strictly following self control guided by the rational pursuits, most of one’s human wants and emotions must be deferred. Akin to General Public.
In the Phaedrus, Plato presented this theory even more graphically, comparing the rational soul to a charioteer whose vehicle is drawn by two horses, one powerful but unruly (appetitive soul - desire) and the other disciplined and obedient (spiritual soul - will).
On Plato's view, then, a human being is properly said to be just when the three souls perform their proper functions in harmony with each other, working in consonance for the good of the person as a whole.
In short, the three souls can be classified as under:
1.Rational Soul (Thinking) - Wisdom
2.Spirited Soul (Willing) - Courage
3.Appetitive Soul (Feeling) - Moderation
In spite of all explanations about soul, its properties, its functions etc. one is left with a feeling of uncertainties as if in a cave chained as a slave.
Let us discuss in our next issue, the famous Plato’s allegory of Cave as expounded by him in the famous treatise ‘The Republic – Book – vii.’
Saturday, November 7, 2009
Wednesday, August 26, 2009
Soul, Mind and Body by Jayanathinathan
Chapter 9 - Ghost - Real Story
Ghost or spirit can be good or evil. We have indicated that the soul who could not live up to its destined period, will wander in the wilderness till the completion of its period. It can even enter the living body suppressing the original soul for a short period. Though soul has no gender distinction, the ghost or spirit does not normally lose its gender difference.
One of my close relatives had undergone the agony of the ghost creating tremendous problems for a few years. One of the male members was afflicted with a ghost. When the ghost entered his body, the original person’s entity would be lost. This could be known by the voice of the ghost which would be quite different from that person’s original voice. A male ghost could enter a female person and vice versa.
In the incident which was known to me, the male ghost would be speaking from the body of the person suppressing his original soul during that period. The ghost would demand that he was hungry and that he wanted food to be served. The food that was served would be eaten by the ghost in no time. The ghost would tell the relatives around in the house that he would come again on a particular date at such and such time on the same person and that he wanted a specific food to be served, as otherwise he would create problems for the person under his control.
Believe me, the ghost would come again on that person exactly on the same date and time as revealed! The ghost would eat all the food served with gusto. When the ghost had left the body of the person, that person would come back to his normal sense.
Actually, he would not remember anything that had happened when he was under the spell of the ghost. Even his appetite would not have been affected in spite of his taking sumptuous food served to the ghost. You would be surprised to know that the person regaining his normal composure would demand his normal share of food.
When the ghost was confronted with the question “Why did you trouble us? Why did you not go away from that person?”, the ghost would answer that if any one in the house was willing to offer his body, he would leave that person. But, who would be willing to be ready for the ghost’s request? And hence, the ghost’s ability or otherwise to enter other person could not be known. Further, there is no logic or reason for having chosen originally that person to ‘live’ within him for a short period.
After a few years, the person was cured of the ghost. Because the ‘life period of the ghost’ might have expired!
(To be continuted.)
Ghost or spirit can be good or evil. We have indicated that the soul who could not live up to its destined period, will wander in the wilderness till the completion of its period. It can even enter the living body suppressing the original soul for a short period. Though soul has no gender distinction, the ghost or spirit does not normally lose its gender difference.
One of my close relatives had undergone the agony of the ghost creating tremendous problems for a few years. One of the male members was afflicted with a ghost. When the ghost entered his body, the original person’s entity would be lost. This could be known by the voice of the ghost which would be quite different from that person’s original voice. A male ghost could enter a female person and vice versa.
In the incident which was known to me, the male ghost would be speaking from the body of the person suppressing his original soul during that period. The ghost would demand that he was hungry and that he wanted food to be served. The food that was served would be eaten by the ghost in no time. The ghost would tell the relatives around in the house that he would come again on a particular date at such and such time on the same person and that he wanted a specific food to be served, as otherwise he would create problems for the person under his control.
Believe me, the ghost would come again on that person exactly on the same date and time as revealed! The ghost would eat all the food served with gusto. When the ghost had left the body of the person, that person would come back to his normal sense.
Actually, he would not remember anything that had happened when he was under the spell of the ghost. Even his appetite would not have been affected in spite of his taking sumptuous food served to the ghost. You would be surprised to know that the person regaining his normal composure would demand his normal share of food.
When the ghost was confronted with the question “Why did you trouble us? Why did you not go away from that person?”, the ghost would answer that if any one in the house was willing to offer his body, he would leave that person. But, who would be willing to be ready for the ghost’s request? And hence, the ghost’s ability or otherwise to enter other person could not be known. Further, there is no logic or reason for having chosen originally that person to ‘live’ within him for a short period.
After a few years, the person was cured of the ghost. Because the ‘life period of the ghost’ might have expired!
(To be continuted.)
Soul, Mind, Body by Jayanthinathan
Chapter 8 - Views of Soul
Spirit is akin to soul, but not soul. Spirit is a supernatural, incorporeal being, as a ghost. There are many instances wherein the ghosts had been photographed and published in papers.
I had read an article in the Readers’ Digest long back which I like to narrate from my memory.
The story goes like this: It was midnight. A diplomat was sitting in the garden reading a book. He was by nature a courageous man and had even served in the army.
Suddenly, he could see some figure moving nearby. He had shouted without moving from his seat. The figure was still and with a torch in his hand, he moved towards the figure.
On nearing the figure, he focused the torch towards its face. The illumined face of the figure had registered in his mind. The figure had disappeared.
After the lapse of some years, in a different country, he was posted as a diplomat. He was asked to preside over an important meeting in that country.
He was accompanied by a few officials who took him near the lift. The meeting was to be held in the top floor for which he had to use the lift. He saw the face of the lift man. The diplomat was taken a back, as the lift-man’s face had reminded him of the face of the figure that was seen and registered in his mind some years back in some other country.
He was hesitant to use the lift. So, he said that he would come later. Hence a few who accompanied him, had gone inside the lift. The lift was shattered in the midway and all inside including the lift man had died.
The diplomat had then explained about his predicaments about the lift man who, according to him, was a ghost in a human form.
Spirit or Ghost may be good or evil. It will have the shape of flame or smoke. Mostly the color will be white. The head will be prominent with body like shape drooping down. It will be a shadowy figure.
Soul is destined to be in the body earmarked for the specified period. If the person discarding the time frame commits suicide or dies in an accident, then the soul is said to take the shape of a ghost to complete the period of its existence in the world as predetermined.
If such spirit enters any one’s body, the soul belonging to that body will be overpowered till its exit.
There are some known instances of such spirits entering the persons which will demand from the people nearby to serve him food etc.
The details of such happenings will be dealt with in our next issue.
(To be continued.)
Spirit is akin to soul, but not soul. Spirit is a supernatural, incorporeal being, as a ghost. There are many instances wherein the ghosts had been photographed and published in papers.
I had read an article in the Readers’ Digest long back which I like to narrate from my memory.
The story goes like this: It was midnight. A diplomat was sitting in the garden reading a book. He was by nature a courageous man and had even served in the army.
Suddenly, he could see some figure moving nearby. He had shouted without moving from his seat. The figure was still and with a torch in his hand, he moved towards the figure.
On nearing the figure, he focused the torch towards its face. The illumined face of the figure had registered in his mind. The figure had disappeared.
After the lapse of some years, in a different country, he was posted as a diplomat. He was asked to preside over an important meeting in that country.
He was accompanied by a few officials who took him near the lift. The meeting was to be held in the top floor for which he had to use the lift. He saw the face of the lift man. The diplomat was taken a back, as the lift-man’s face had reminded him of the face of the figure that was seen and registered in his mind some years back in some other country.
He was hesitant to use the lift. So, he said that he would come later. Hence a few who accompanied him, had gone inside the lift. The lift was shattered in the midway and all inside including the lift man had died.
The diplomat had then explained about his predicaments about the lift man who, according to him, was a ghost in a human form.
Spirit or Ghost may be good or evil. It will have the shape of flame or smoke. Mostly the color will be white. The head will be prominent with body like shape drooping down. It will be a shadowy figure.
Soul is destined to be in the body earmarked for the specified period. If the person discarding the time frame commits suicide or dies in an accident, then the soul is said to take the shape of a ghost to complete the period of its existence in the world as predetermined.
If such spirit enters any one’s body, the soul belonging to that body will be overpowered till its exit.
There are some known instances of such spirits entering the persons which will demand from the people nearby to serve him food etc.
The details of such happenings will be dealt with in our next issue.
(To be continued.)
Friday, March 13, 2009
Chapter 7 - Views of Soul by Socrates
In our previous chapters, we had delved to some extent the general characteristics of soul and the opinions of various Greek philosophers.
Now, we are going to know the views held by three famous Greek philosophers - viz. Socrates, Plato and Aristotle. We can call them as trio, as there are vital relationships between these three philosophers. Plato was Boswell to Socrates the Johnson and Plato was the most ardent disciple of Socrates who had recorded all his dialogues, speeches and arguments in great graphic details. The world would not have known the greatness of Socrates, if Plato had not brought out Socrates’ literary thoughts in written format and that too, in such minute forms.
Socrates was unlettered like Sri Ramakrishna Paramahamsa, the Guru of Swami Vivekananda, but they were born genius and well knowledgeable. The futility of mere education has been well proved by these two great souls.
Aristotle was the disciple of Plato. Theories about soul as expended by these three Great Greek Philosophers could be said to be the best in so far as their scientific treatment of the most obscure subjects.
Aristotle treatment on Soul in his famous book “On Soul” is really quite comprehensive enough to have a deeper insight compared to Plato’s Republic. But, all those three philosophers had their own judgments in dealing with the soul – human soul in particular and soul in general.
Aristotle was the disciple of Plato. Theories about soul as expended by these three Great Greek Philosophers could be said to be the best in so far as their scientific treatment of the most obscure subjects.
Aristotle treatment on Soul in his famous book “On Soul” is really quite comprehensive enough to have a deeper insight compared to Plato’s Republic. But, all those three philosophers had their own judgments in dealing with the soul – human soul in particular and soul in general.
Let us start with Socrates.
Socrates said that the soul is immortal and that the soul also knows the truths of its separation from the body at the time of death. This argument confronts head-on the widespread theory like Cebes, that the soul is a material thing and is destroyed by being dispersed like breath or smoke. Soul, according to Socrates, is divine, formless, intelligible, part-less and impermissible. In fine, body and soul differ in kind, the one being perceptible and perishable, the other being intelligible and exempt from destruction.
According to Plato, the Soul has a role to play in making the body to take proper judgments. The Soul is said to control the senses and hence there are ‘wise soul’ and ‘devil soul’. Perhaps, we call these souls as conscious guidance. However, it should be clear that the soul is not simply the mind, as we conceive of it. The soul is immortal because it has life essentially the way fire has heat essentially. It is plain that these arguments apply to the souls of all living things, including plants.
The Plato’s Republic also puts forward a new theory of soul. It is stated that the embodied human soul has at least three parts or aspects, namely reason, spirit and appetite.
The Plato’s Republic also puts forward a new theory of soul. It is stated that the embodied human soul has at least three parts or aspects, namely reason, spirit and appetite.
Socrates begins by enunciating a principle to the effect that opposite actions, affections and states cannot be assigned to one thing in respect of the same part of it, in relation to the same object and at the same time.
Desiring and being averse are opposites, and hence that desiring to do something and being averse to doing that same thing are opposites in relation to the same object. But it does frequently happen, Socrates points out that the soul desires to do something and at the same time is averse to doing that same thing.
This happens, for instance, when a person is thirsty and on that basis wants to drink, but at the same time wishes not to drink, on the basis of some calculation or deliberation, and in fact succeeds in refraining from drinking, thirsty though they are. It follows from the premises stated that the human soul must have at least two parts, so that one opposite (the desire to drink) can be assigned to one part of the soul and the other (the aversion to drinking) can be assigned to the other.
Having thus identified reason and appetite as distinct parts of the soul, Socrates draws attention to other kinds of conflict between desires, which bring to light spirit, the third part of the soul.
Soul, Mind and Body by Jayanthinathan
Chapter 6 : Democritus’s views on Soul
Democtritus, meaning ‘chosen of the people’, was a pre-Socratic Greek materialististic philosopher. He was also known as ‘the Laughing Philosopher’ because of his emphasis on the value of ‘cheerfulness.’ Democritus was a student of Leucippus and co-originator of the belief that all matter is made up of various imperishable, individual elements which he called as Atoms.
Democtritus had inherited wealth from his father and had travelled widely visiting Asia, Ethiopia, Babylone, Egypt and even India. He was actually proud of his travels and would boast himself as a widely travelled philosopher.
Aristoxenus wrote that Plato wanted to burn all the works of Democritus, but could not do so because the books were already in wide circulation. Failing this, he avoided any mention of Democritus in his own writings. Certainly, Socrates’ brand of argument might not have fared well against Democritus, who was described by Timon as "the guardian of discourse, a keen witted disputant". This statement paints Plato in a bad light and perhaps intellectuals are quite different from moral moorings. Still greatness of Plato could not be disputed.
Hermippus wrote that when Democritus was nearing his end, his sister was upset because his death could prevent her from worshipping at the three-day festival of Thesmophoria. Democritus told her not to worry, and kept himself alive by inhaling the fresh smell of baked loaves until the end of the festival, when he relinquished his life without pain. Hipparchus wrote that Democritus was then in his 109th year. It is said that at his advancing age he spent his days and nights in caverns and sepulchers, and that, in order to master his intellectual faculties, he blinded himself with burning glass. This story, however, is discredited by the writers who mention it insofar as they say he wrote books and dissected animals, neither of which could be done well without eyes.
The above is a brief life history of Democritus and let us dwell about his theories in general and soul in particular.
Aristoxenus wrote that Plato wanted to burn all the works of Democritus, but could not do so because the books were already in wide circulation. Failing this, he avoided any mention of Democritus in his own writings. Certainly, Socrates’ brand of argument might not have fared well against Democritus, who was described by Timon as "the guardian of discourse, a keen witted disputant". This statement paints Plato in a bad light and perhaps intellectuals are quite different from moral moorings. Still greatness of Plato could not be disputed.
Hermippus wrote that when Democritus was nearing his end, his sister was upset because his death could prevent her from worshipping at the three-day festival of Thesmophoria. Democritus told her not to worry, and kept himself alive by inhaling the fresh smell of baked loaves until the end of the festival, when he relinquished his life without pain. Hipparchus wrote that Democritus was then in his 109th year. It is said that at his advancing age he spent his days and nights in caverns and sepulchers, and that, in order to master his intellectual faculties, he blinded himself with burning glass. This story, however, is discredited by the writers who mention it insofar as they say he wrote books and dissected animals, neither of which could be done well without eyes.
The above is a brief life history of Democritus and let us dwell about his theories in general and soul in particular.
Democtritus is the first thinker on record to explain ‘the void’. According to him, he denied that the void can be equated with nothing. To him, void is vaccum. However, he had accepted the existence of only two things: Atom and Void.
In his own words, he explains atom and void thus: By convention there is sweet, by convention there is bitterness, by convention hot and cold, by convention color; but in reality there are only atoms and the void.
The void has, as it were, a spatial being. Democritus asserted that space, or the Void, had an equal right with reality, or Being, to be considered existent. He conceived of the Void as a vacuum, an infinite space in which moved an infinite number of atoms that made up Being i.e. the physical world.
These atoms are eternal and invisible; absolutely small, so small that their size cannot be diminished - hence the name atom, or "indivisible"; Atoms are absolutely full and incompressible, as they are without pores and entirely fill the space they occupy; and homogeneous, differing only in shape, arrangement, position, and magnitude.
These atoms are eternal and invisible; absolutely small, so small that their size cannot be diminished - hence the name atom, or "indivisible"; Atoms are absolutely full and incompressible, as they are without pores and entirely fill the space they occupy; and homogeneous, differing only in shape, arrangement, position, and magnitude.
According to Democritus, the soul is composed of such fine and spherical atoms. The shape of soul’s atom is spherical and as the soul is spherical, its nature is never to be still, but to move. In the process of its movement, it draws the whole body along with it and set it in motion. The soul atom is similar to fire atom: small, spherical, capable of penetrating sold bodies and spontaneous motion.
When the soul is disturbed, its motion affects the body in a violent way. On the other hand, when the soul is at rest, it regulates thoughts and actions harmoniously. Freedom from disturbance is the condition that causes human happiness, and this is the ethical goal. Democritus identifies the ultimate good as cheerfulness. That is the state in which the soul lives peacefully and tranquilly, undisturbed by fear or superstition or any other feeling.
Democritus argued that one’s own consciousness of right and wrong should prevent one from doing anything shameful, not the fear of breaking the law or being vilified by public opinion. He thought that most things in life could be set in order by an intelligent farsightedness. With regard to aesthetics he is said to have remarked that there is no poetry without madness.
In short, soul is atom, spherical in shape, fire in composition, cheerfulness in nature. On our next issue, we will be concentrating on the thoughts and theories about Soul and Mind as propunded by Socratis, Plato and Aristotle.
Friday, December 5, 2008
Soul, Mind and Body by Jayanthinathan
Chapter – 5: Views on Soul by Heraclitus, a Greek Philosopher
So far: The basic characteristics of soul, mind and body were narrated. Soul’s rebirth was proved beyond doubt by the story of Shanthi Devi, which has been well documented and vetted. On the basis of rebirth of the soul of Shanthi Devi, various aspects of the soul were discussed. Then the views of three pre-Socratics’ Greek Philosophers viz. Thales, Anaximander and Anaxemenes were brought in. Thales viewed soul as water and magnet, Anaximander as Infinite and Anaxemenes as air. Now, let us elaborate on Heraclitus’s theory on Soul.
Heraclitus lived like Buddha, was critical like Nakkeerar (Chief Ancient Tamil Poet of Chola King) and thought like Adi Sankara.
Like Buddha, Heraclitus abandoned his riches in favor of his brother and wandered the mountains making his diet of grass and herbs.
Like Nakkeerar, he criticized the Greek Philosophers Hesiod and Pythagoras as frauds though learned and Epic poets Homer and Archilochus as fools deserved to be beaten.
Like Adi Sankara, he propounded his theory stating that ‘all things come out of the One and the One comes out of all things’ similar to Advaita theory. The theory of Heraclitus is known as ‘Logos’. Heraclitus was of the firm opinion that the world is governed by the Logos and so the only wisdom in humans is understanding the Logos.
Like Adi Sankara, he propounded his theory stating that ‘all things come out of the One and the One comes out of all things’ similar to Advaita theory. The theory of Heraclitus is known as ‘Logos’. Heraclitus was of the firm opinion that the world is governed by the Logos and so the only wisdom in humans is understanding the Logos.
Heraclitus claimed to know everything and was proud of his only book titled ‘On the Nature of the Universe’. But his writings are very obscure in nature to understand and hence he was called a ‘Riddler’. When he was invited by the King to come to his court to explain his writings, he refused by stating: ‘All men upon earth hold aloof from truth and justice, while, by reason of wicked folly, they devote themselves to avarice and thirst for popularity.’
He was a meloncholy man and it was presumed that he could not complete his book. He is nicknamed as a dark or weeping philosopher.
He was a meloncholy man and it was presumed that he could not complete his book. He is nicknamed as a dark or weeping philosopher.
He had married a wealthy lady who had also made to surrender all her wealth before her marriage and had a son and a daughter who had also been taught to live a namodic life. He lost his vision and treated himself with a liniment of cow manure and baking in the sun, believing that this would cure him. After 24 hours of treatment at the age of 60, he died.
In spite of all these negative aspects, Heraclitus along with Parmenides another Greek philosopher, is probably the most significant philosopher of ancient Greece until Socrates and Plato; in fact, Heraclitus's philosophy is perhaps even more fundamental in the formation of the European mind than any other thinker in European history, including Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle.
When Socrates was asked to comment on Heraclitus' book, Socrates replied:"What I understand is splendid; and I think what I don't understand is so too - but it would take a Delian diver to get to the bottom of it."
When Socrates was asked to comment on Heraclitus' book, Socrates replied:"What I understand is splendid; and I think what I don't understand is so too - but it would take a Delian diver to get to the bottom of it."
Obama Barack had got elected on one word – Change. Actually, the theory of change was first propounded by Heraclitus. His famous quote is:One thing in this universe which is permanent is Change. According to him, everything is in a state of flux or change and all beings are going and not remaining at all. To illustrate this theory of the state of flux, Heraclitus brought the simile of river and its flow of water. One could not step into the same water twice, but Heraclitus confirmed that inspite of its flow or change, the wolrd is one unified whole like the river which is constant, yet contains this perpetual change like its water.
‘Enough of Heraclitus and let us have his views on Soul’ - you seem to murmur. Sensing your mood, let me not delay any further.
Soul, according to Heraclitus, is the mixture of fire and water. You know that Fire and Water are opposite to each other and that one is capable of bringing end to the other. But, his Logos is: All Beings are by themselves opposites and all things come into being by conflict of opposites, and the sum of things ("the whole") flows like a stream. This is something like positive and negative being coming together for any existence. According to him, Fire is primordial source of matter.
Fire is the most complete emobodiment of the process of Becoming out of which all things, including even Soul, grow by way of a quasi condensation. But this primordial fire is in itself that divine rational process, the harmony of which constitutes the law of the universe.
Further, Heraclitus explains that things which are put together are both whole and not whole, brought together and taken apart, in harmony and out of harmony and that one thing arises from all things, and all things arise from one thing. This is one example of Heraclitus’s obscure passages for your consumption!
Further, Heraclitus explains that things which are put together are both whole and not whole, brought together and taken apart, in harmony and out of harmony and that one thing arises from all things, and all things arise from one thing. This is one example of Heraclitus’s obscure passages for your consumption!
Soul, which is generated out of fire, has a limitless dimension: If you went in search of it, you would not find the boundaries of the soul.
He had also classified soul into dry and wet and even cultured and uncultured. For these, his views are: ‘Drunkenness damages the soul by causing it to be moist, while a virtuous life keeps the soul dry and intelligent. Souls seem to be able to survive death and to fare according to their character.’
Opposites are not for opposing things, but they are there only to conform to the everlasting rational formula of unity, which is called logos. If there are no opposites, then there will be no life left in the universe. This is the fulcrum meaning of the following quotes of Heraclitus: “Day and night, up and down, living and dying, heating and cooling – such pairings of apparent opposites all conform to the everlastingly rational formula (logos) that unity consists of opposites; remove day, and night goes too, just as a river will lose its identity if it ceases to flow.”
From the foregoing, we have known the main idea of Soul as expounded by Heraclitus,who is called a weeping philosopher.
In our next month issue, we will be writing about the views of Democritus, who is called a laughing philosopher.
Thursday, October 23, 2008
Chapter 4: Soul, Mind and Body - Views of Greek Philosophers by Jayanthinathan
Chapter 4: Soul as viewed by Greek Philosophers
In the previous chapters, a few characteristics of soul such as rebirth, mobility, and power to penetrate through solid particles such as walls, fortresses, woods, bodies etc. with ease had been dealt with to some extent.
The souls had been differently described by Thales as water and magnet, Anaximander as Boundless Stuff and Anaximens as Air who are ancient Greek philosophers belonging to Milesian School. This school is considered as first ancient Greek philosophic institute and they are called ‘Presocratics’ indicating that they came before Socrates.
Before plunging into the various theories about soul as held by these three Greek philosophers, let us try to know the dictionary meaning of the word soul and other concepts. The Encyclopedia Britannica defines soul thus: “Soul is a spiritual substance. Soul animates the bodies of living creatures. Soul is the principle of life and activity within them.”
Old German conception of the soul is related to sea and it is ‘a living water.’ Early Germanic people believed that the soul of deceased rested at the bottom of the sea. There was a practice amongst the Germans to ritually binding or restraining the corpse of the deceased in the grave to prevent its return as a ghost.
Some ancient Greeks referred to the soul as psyche meaning human mind and anima which means breath and life.
In the New Testament, the soul is narrated as "life", as in : "For what profit is it to a man if he gains the whole world, and loses his own soul?" (Mathew 16:26).
Hence Water, Air (Breath), Life, Mind and Movement characterize soul. In fine, the word ‘soul’ makes living things alive by breath apart from its movement and thinking faculties.
Originally, the Presocratic’s philosophers, in particular, those belonging to Milesia School, had thought that the soul owed its origin to magnet, water, air or none of these, but boundless stuff. We will be taking up the messages of these three greek philosophers viz. Thales (water and magnet), Anaximander (boundless stuff) and Anaximenes (air) one by one.
Thales, Father of Greek Philosopy:
Thales was one of the Seven Sages of Greece. Many regard him as the first philosopher in the Greek tradition as well as the father of science.
Thales of Miletus, who is credited with successfully predicting a solar eclipse occurring in 585 B.C., attributed soul to magnets, as the magnets are capable of moving iron. All living things are to be able to initiate movement and hence magnets must in fact be alive or, in other words, ensouled. Here iron is body and magnetic power is soul.
Thales had not stopped with the theory of magnet to soul. He stated that the origin of all matter is water. The largest constituent of the universe is hydrogen, which makes two of the three atoms in water (H ² O). Scientists believe that liquid water is prerequisite to life, and we know with certainty that the first life forms flourished in the oceans, so water is indeed a primordial substance.
By this, Thales had stated that water which is considered primordial substance, is the basis of all things and the soul is therefore from water. Thales famous quotes is: All things are full of God. Hence, it can be inferred that soul is also godly.
According to Thales, the soul is magnet, water and godly.
Let us now try to know about Anaximander’s views about Soul.
Anaximander:
Anaximander was a pupil of Thales, founder of the Milesian School of philosophy. He succeeded him as master of the School where his work influenced Anaximenes and Pythagoras.
In philosophical treatise, one will come across two words - apeiron meaning infinite or limitless and arkhe meaning beginning or origin. These two words were first introduced by Anaximander.
The Pre-Socratics were searching for the element that constitutes all things. Each pre-Socratic philosopher gave a different answer as to the identity of this element (water for Thales, air for Anaximenes, fire for Heraclitus).
But, Anaximander understood the beginning or first principle to be an endless, unlimited primordial mass (apeiron or infinite). This primordial mass have infinite as its characteristics and is subject to neither old age nor decay. This infinite perpetually yields fresh materials from which everything we perceive is derived.
Anaximander’s principle of things is that the constituent of all substances is not water, air or fire, but they are thicker than air and fire or more subtle than water and earth. Anaximander argued that water cannot embrace all of the opposites found in nature — for example, water can only be wet, never dry — and therefore cannot be the one primary substance and this applies to air and fire as well. He postulated the apeiron or infinite as a substance that although not directly perceptible to us, it could have the characteristics of both cold and hot. Boundless substance should be infinite, originless and both cold and hot. Hence, water, air or fire could not be that substance.
His theory is: Everything has an origin or is an origin. The boundless has no origin. If it is not boundless, then it would have a limit. Moreover, it is both unborn or immortal. The aperiron or infinite is thus the quintesential premordial ground from which everything arises.
The infinite was a kind of primal chaos, a formless and limitless mass, from which solid matter forms and to which it returns.
In Anaximander’s own words: Whence things have their origin, thence also their destruction happens as is the order of things; for they execute the sentence upon one another – the condemnation of the crime – in conformity with the ordinance of time.
Anaximander maintained that all dying things are returning to the element from which they came from apeiron or infinite.
Hence, according to Anaximander, the soul is also boundless and formless mass.
Now, let us consider what Anaximenes had to say about the Soul.
Anaximenes
Anaximenes was the student of Anaximander. He is best known for his doctrine that air is the source of all things. That means that Air is the first principle. He therefore contradicted Thales who had stated that water was the source and also Anaximander who said that all things came from an unspecified boundless stuff. For Anaximenes, everything was air. The air was acted upon by natural forces, which transform other materials of the world. Air can be thought of as a kind of neutral stuff that is found everywhere, and is hence available to participate in physical processes.
The air is associated with the soul-sometimes portrayed as the breath of life and hence with life and intelligence. Anaximenes had thought of air as capable of directing its own development to some extent as soul controlled body. He ascribed to air divine attributes as well.
Anaximenes provided an interesting account of natural change: Air differs in essence in accordance with its rarity or density. When it is thinned it becomes fire, while when it is condensed it becomes wind, then cloud, when still more condensed it becomes water, then earth, then stones. Everything else comes from these. He has pronounced that as our souls, being air, hold us together, so breath and air embrace the entire universe.
Air becomes the basic element for Fire, wind, cloud, water, earth and stone. For soul also, air becomes the basic element.
Anaximenes said that infinite air was the principle, from which all things – even gods and things divine come into being, and the rest from its product. It is always in motion: for things that change does not change unless there is movement.
Movement is, therefore, a prerequisite for changes in things.
Air, which is always in motion, is the cause for the changes in the products so evolved.
For Anaximenes, all things come from air and ultimately are air. Air as the archê or the first principle is infinite, unlimited or unconditioned and therefore unoriginate, from which it follows that it is the source of the other three elements viz. fire, water and earth and the things composed of them. If it were from a source, air would be finite, being limited or conditioned by its source. Since air is infinite and perpetually in motion it can produce all things without being produced by anything. Even the gods and other divine things derive from air and ultimately are air.
Anaximenes said that the air is god and it is boundless and infinite and always in motion.
Soul is therefore air, which is boundless and infinite and is divine.
In our next article, we will know about the views held by Heraclitus and other Greek philosophers.
( To be continued.)
In the previous chapters, a few characteristics of soul such as rebirth, mobility, and power to penetrate through solid particles such as walls, fortresses, woods, bodies etc. with ease had been dealt with to some extent.
The souls had been differently described by Thales as water and magnet, Anaximander as Boundless Stuff and Anaximens as Air who are ancient Greek philosophers belonging to Milesian School. This school is considered as first ancient Greek philosophic institute and they are called ‘Presocratics’ indicating that they came before Socrates.
Before plunging into the various theories about soul as held by these three Greek philosophers, let us try to know the dictionary meaning of the word soul and other concepts. The Encyclopedia Britannica defines soul thus: “Soul is a spiritual substance. Soul animates the bodies of living creatures. Soul is the principle of life and activity within them.”
Old German conception of the soul is related to sea and it is ‘a living water.’ Early Germanic people believed that the soul of deceased rested at the bottom of the sea. There was a practice amongst the Germans to ritually binding or restraining the corpse of the deceased in the grave to prevent its return as a ghost.
Some ancient Greeks referred to the soul as psyche meaning human mind and anima which means breath and life.
In the New Testament, the soul is narrated as "life", as in : "For what profit is it to a man if he gains the whole world, and loses his own soul?" (Mathew 16:26).
Hence Water, Air (Breath), Life, Mind and Movement characterize soul. In fine, the word ‘soul’ makes living things alive by breath apart from its movement and thinking faculties.
Originally, the Presocratic’s philosophers, in particular, those belonging to Milesia School, had thought that the soul owed its origin to magnet, water, air or none of these, but boundless stuff. We will be taking up the messages of these three greek philosophers viz. Thales (water and magnet), Anaximander (boundless stuff) and Anaximenes (air) one by one.
Thales, Father of Greek Philosopy:
Thales was one of the Seven Sages of Greece. Many regard him as the first philosopher in the Greek tradition as well as the father of science.
Thales of Miletus, who is credited with successfully predicting a solar eclipse occurring in 585 B.C., attributed soul to magnets, as the magnets are capable of moving iron. All living things are to be able to initiate movement and hence magnets must in fact be alive or, in other words, ensouled. Here iron is body and magnetic power is soul.
Thales had not stopped with the theory of magnet to soul. He stated that the origin of all matter is water. The largest constituent of the universe is hydrogen, which makes two of the three atoms in water (H ² O). Scientists believe that liquid water is prerequisite to life, and we know with certainty that the first life forms flourished in the oceans, so water is indeed a primordial substance.
By this, Thales had stated that water which is considered primordial substance, is the basis of all things and the soul is therefore from water. Thales famous quotes is: All things are full of God. Hence, it can be inferred that soul is also godly.
According to Thales, the soul is magnet, water and godly.
Let us now try to know about Anaximander’s views about Soul.
Anaximander:
Anaximander was a pupil of Thales, founder of the Milesian School of philosophy. He succeeded him as master of the School where his work influenced Anaximenes and Pythagoras.
In philosophical treatise, one will come across two words - apeiron meaning infinite or limitless and arkhe meaning beginning or origin. These two words were first introduced by Anaximander.
The Pre-Socratics were searching for the element that constitutes all things. Each pre-Socratic philosopher gave a different answer as to the identity of this element (water for Thales, air for Anaximenes, fire for Heraclitus).
But, Anaximander understood the beginning or first principle to be an endless, unlimited primordial mass (apeiron or infinite). This primordial mass have infinite as its characteristics and is subject to neither old age nor decay. This infinite perpetually yields fresh materials from which everything we perceive is derived.
Anaximander’s principle of things is that the constituent of all substances is not water, air or fire, but they are thicker than air and fire or more subtle than water and earth. Anaximander argued that water cannot embrace all of the opposites found in nature — for example, water can only be wet, never dry — and therefore cannot be the one primary substance and this applies to air and fire as well. He postulated the apeiron or infinite as a substance that although not directly perceptible to us, it could have the characteristics of both cold and hot. Boundless substance should be infinite, originless and both cold and hot. Hence, water, air or fire could not be that substance.
His theory is: Everything has an origin or is an origin. The boundless has no origin. If it is not boundless, then it would have a limit. Moreover, it is both unborn or immortal. The aperiron or infinite is thus the quintesential premordial ground from which everything arises.
The infinite was a kind of primal chaos, a formless and limitless mass, from which solid matter forms and to which it returns.
In Anaximander’s own words: Whence things have their origin, thence also their destruction happens as is the order of things; for they execute the sentence upon one another – the condemnation of the crime – in conformity with the ordinance of time.
Anaximander maintained that all dying things are returning to the element from which they came from apeiron or infinite.
Hence, according to Anaximander, the soul is also boundless and formless mass.
Now, let us consider what Anaximenes had to say about the Soul.
Anaximenes
Anaximenes was the student of Anaximander. He is best known for his doctrine that air is the source of all things. That means that Air is the first principle. He therefore contradicted Thales who had stated that water was the source and also Anaximander who said that all things came from an unspecified boundless stuff. For Anaximenes, everything was air. The air was acted upon by natural forces, which transform other materials of the world. Air can be thought of as a kind of neutral stuff that is found everywhere, and is hence available to participate in physical processes.
The air is associated with the soul-sometimes portrayed as the breath of life and hence with life and intelligence. Anaximenes had thought of air as capable of directing its own development to some extent as soul controlled body. He ascribed to air divine attributes as well.
Anaximenes provided an interesting account of natural change: Air differs in essence in accordance with its rarity or density. When it is thinned it becomes fire, while when it is condensed it becomes wind, then cloud, when still more condensed it becomes water, then earth, then stones. Everything else comes from these. He has pronounced that as our souls, being air, hold us together, so breath and air embrace the entire universe.
Air becomes the basic element for Fire, wind, cloud, water, earth and stone. For soul also, air becomes the basic element.
Anaximenes said that infinite air was the principle, from which all things – even gods and things divine come into being, and the rest from its product. It is always in motion: for things that change does not change unless there is movement.
Movement is, therefore, a prerequisite for changes in things.
Air, which is always in motion, is the cause for the changes in the products so evolved.
For Anaximenes, all things come from air and ultimately are air. Air as the archê or the first principle is infinite, unlimited or unconditioned and therefore unoriginate, from which it follows that it is the source of the other three elements viz. fire, water and earth and the things composed of them. If it were from a source, air would be finite, being limited or conditioned by its source. Since air is infinite and perpetually in motion it can produce all things without being produced by anything. Even the gods and other divine things derive from air and ultimately are air.
Anaximenes said that the air is god and it is boundless and infinite and always in motion.
Soul is therefore air, which is boundless and infinite and is divine.
In our next article, we will know about the views held by Heraclitus and other Greek philosophers.
( To be continued.)
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